A) Arthur: "Children understand some of the characteristics of memory, but they don't realize that you need to make a real effort in order to memorize something."
B) Maya: "Children have very little awareness of any aspects of metacognition until they have reached school age."
C) Katarina: "Children develop metacognitive abilities much earlier than psychologists had previously suspected; these skills are quite sophisticated by the time children reach school age."
D) Luke: "Unfortunately, it is difficult to assess cognitive skills in preschool children; but 5-year-olds have metacognitive skills that resemble the skills of 10-year-olds."
F) A) and B)
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A
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A) people who are high in memory self-efficacy typically believe that they cannot prevent memory problems.
B) memory self-efficacy is especially strong in people with dementia.
C) elderly people who are aware of their memory problems are less likely to develop memory strategies.
D) the stereotype-about forgetfulness in late adulthood-may encourage elderly adults to believe that cognitive decline is unavoidable.
F) All of the above
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A) infants can appreciate phoneme similarities shortly after birth, but they cannot appreciate phoneme differences until they are almost 12 months old.
B) infants have such limited skills that psychologists cannot design appropriate research on speech perception in infants younger than 6 months of age.
C) infants can perceive the differences between a variety of similar phonemes; this ability is present either at birth or during the first weeks of life.
D) the perception of phonemes does not change after the age of 6 months.
F) A) and B)
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A) adults who use child-directed speech tend to make language acquisition somewhat easier for children.
B) adults who use child-directed speech actually make language acquisition more difficult for children.
C) unfortunately, fathers are not skilled in using child-directed speech.
D) unfortunately, older children are not skilled in using child-directed speech.
F) A) and C)
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A) the babies show habituation to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly.
B) the babies suck at a higher rate to produce the voice of their mother than the voice of a stranger.
C) the babies kick in order to produce movement of a mobile.
D) the babies receive a "peekaboo" reinforcement when they recognize a familiar object.
F) A) and C)
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A) "You can teach them memory strategies, but they may not use them appropriately."
B) "They can only use organizational strategies; they cannot utilize rehearsal or imagery."
C) "Preschoolers lack the brain development to utilize working memory.
D) "They realize that memory strategies would increase their recall, but they have difficulty remembering what the strategies are."
F) A) and B)
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A
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A) 7 months.
B) 3 days.
C) 2 years.
D) 5 years.
F) A) and B)
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A) children's memory span remains fairly constant between the ages of about 2 and 10.
B) children do not seem to have a functioning visuospatial sketchpad until they are about 10 years of age.
C) scores on tests of phonological working memory are correlated with reading skills.
D) scores on tests of visuospatial working memory do not seem to be correlated with any academic skills.
F) A) and C)
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A) learn new words.
B) create the past tense for verbs.
C) combine words into sentences.
D) describe how a toy works, when speaking to a younger child.
F) A) and D)
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B
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A) infants cannot distinguish between their native language and an unfamiliar language until they are about 1 year of age.
B) infants' ability to appreciate phoneme contrasts in an unfamiliar language improves substantially during the first 2 years of life.
C) infants are slow to develop language because they cannot recognize the basic phonemes of their native language until they are about 9 months of age.
D) by the age of about 5 months, infants respond more to their own name than to a different name.
F) B) and D)
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A) children's accuracy is not correlated with the complexity of the interviewer's language.
B) children's accuracy is not correlated with their age.
C) young children are likely to make errors when the interviewer asks questions in an emotional tone.
D) young children are likely to respond "I don't know" when they cannot recall the details of an event.
F) All of the above
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A) in general, elderly adults are more confident about their skills than young adults are.
B) other variables-such as health or education-can explain part of the age-related cognitive differences.
C) when researchers eliminate several other relevant variables, elderly adults and young adults have almost identical cognitive abilities.
D) in general, elderly adults and young adults have had similar recent experience with memorizing material.
F) C) and D)
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A) contextual-cues deficit.
B) implicit memory.
C) semantic deficits.
D) cognitive slowing.
F) A) and B)
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A) older adults have a slight advantage over younger adults in this area because of their greater life experience.
B) older adults are much less accurate than younger adults in this area; in fact, the age differences are larger than on explicit memory tasks.
C) older adults and younger adults perform fairly similarly on implicit memory tasks.
D) the results in this area are extremely variable, depending upon the method used; some tasks reveal very large age-related differences, others reveal no differences whatsoever.
F) C) and D)
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A) some of the children would later report that they had in fact danced around the classroom.
B) because children do not develop visual imagery until they are about 7 or 8, they would typically report, "You told us to think about dancing-but I didn't really dance."
C) many children would report that they had actually heard dance music.
D) the children would have no recall of the instructions, because they have so much difficulty understanding instructions.
F) A) and C)
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A) children as young as 4 will spontaneously use imagery as an aid to their memory.
B) children as young as 6 can be trained to use imagery as an aid to their memory.
C) children as young as 6 can create mental images, but they cannot use imagery as a strategy for memory improvement.
D) most college students make effective use of imagery as a memory strategy.
F) B) and C)
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A) these children were much more confident about the questions they answered correctly compared with the questions they answered incorrectly.
B) these children were equally confident about the questions they answered correctly and the questions they answered incorrectly.
C) these children were overconfident about the questions that they had actually answered incorrectly.
D) these children were unable to understand the metamemory task, so the results of this study were inconclusive.
F) A) and C)
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A) Syntax
B) Overextension
C) Morphology
D) Pragmatics
F) B) and D)
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A) infants and adults responded similarly; both remembered better when their practice was distributed over time.
B) infants and adults responded similarly; both remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session.
C) infants remembered better when practice was distributed; adults remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session.
D) infants remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session; adults remembered better when practice was distributed.
F) A) and D)
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A) pragmatics.
B) habituation.
C) an overextension.
D) fast mapping.
F) A) and C)
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